Research

Here are peer-reviewed studies showing direct brain effects of non-invasive  neuromodulation techniques.

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tDCS (transcranial Direct Current Stimulation)

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1. Nitsche & Paulus, 2000-Anodal vs. cathodal tDCS over human M1 bidirectionally modulates corticospinal excitability (MEPs).
   https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1469-7793.2000.t01-1-00633.x

2. Lang et al., 2004 M1 tDCS produces lasting changes in cortical excitability, including interhemispheric effects measured with TMS.
   https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14745467/

3. Pellicciari et al., 2013-Polarity-specific modulation of motor system reactivity by tDCS, showing complex direct and indirect effects.
   https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1053811913007192

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tACS (transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation)

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1. Helfrich et al., 2014 (Current Biology) 10 Hz tACS entrains alpha oscillations and synchronizes cortical oscillators (EEG/MEG).
   https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096098221301600X

2. Vossen et al., 2015 (PLOS ONE) Alpha-power increases after tACS, consistent with direct entrainment and/or plastic changes.
   https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4464304/

3. Ali et al., 2013 (Journal of Neuroscience) tACS modulates targeted cortical oscillations linked to motor and cognitive functions.
   https://www.jneurosci.org/content/33/27/11262

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tRNS (transcranial Random Noise Stimulation)

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1. Terney et al., 2008 (Journal of Neuroscience) High-frequency tRNS over M1 increases cortical excitability (MEP amplitudes) for approximately 60 minutes.
   https://www.jneurosci.org/content/28/52/14147
   PDF: https://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/28/52/14147.full.pdf

2. Moret et al., 2019 (Scientific Reports) Parameterized high-frequency tRNS robustly enhances neural excitability (MEP changes) and performance.
   https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-51553-7
   PDF(alternate): https://www.research.unipd.it/bitstream/11577/3317638/1/Moret%20et%20al.%202019.pdf

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LEDs / tPBM (transcranial photobiomodulation)

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1. Zomorrodi et al., 2019 (Scientific Reports) Transcranial and intranasal near-infrared photobiomodulation modulates EEG neural oscillations in humans.
   https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-42693-x

2. Chaudhari et al., 2023 (Bioengineering)
   Four weeks of prefrontal LED-tPBM alters EEG network power (theta, beta, gamma) and improves vigilance.
   https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10525861/
   Journal page: https://www.mdpi.com/2306-5354/10/9/1043